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Research Article

Published on 21 Oct 2026

Gut-Brain Axis Modulatory Effects of Mushrooms in Parkinson’s Disease

Mohammad Azizur Rahman

  1. 1Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh

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Authors: Mohammad Azizur Rahman1*, Md Imran Mia1, Md Rezowan Islam Badhon1, Fahmida Rahman1, Md. Touhidul Islam2

Abstract

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most common movement disorder. It is a form of neurodegenerative disorders characterized by imbalance, tremor, muscular rigidity, problem in speaking and cognitive impairments. Global PD burden is increasing alarmingly. Levodopa, currently used medication, is out of reach of the PD patients suffering from the developing and under-developed countries. Thus, search for cost-effective, easy to find, nutraceutical-based therapeutic approaches against PD, has reached momentum. In this aspect, therapeutic suitability of mushrooms, the edible macrofungi, has been explored in this article, focusing the “gut-brain axis” proposition of PD pathogenesis.

Keywords: Brain, Braak hypothesis, Gut, Microbiome, Parkinson’s disease.

  1. INTRODUCTION

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second leading neurodegenerative disorder that affects about 1% of people over 60 years globally [1-2]. Common symptoms of PD include motor neuronal dysfunctions including muscular tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, difficulty in gait movement and posture [3]. Besides, gastrointestinal abnormalities such as constipation and some dysregulation of gastrointestinal microbiome have recently been noticed. Neuropathological hallmarks of PD entail loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) along with accumulation of α-synulein dubbed as “Lewy bodies” in various regions of the brain [3]. Thus, both the central nervous system (CNS) and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract harbor PD pathogenesis agents or consequences [3]. Treatment strategies aimed at both sites could provide extensive therapeutic support to the PD patients. However, hypotheses and theories as well as experience relating both the CNS and the GI tract or the “gut” prevail in PD research paradigm [4]. Present article critically articulates both the brain and/or gut relation as well as their segregation and cumulative effects in PD pathogenesis followed by suggestion of a common therapeutic agent against both of the pathogenetic milieu.

2. GUT-BRAIN AXIS/BRAAK HYPOTHESIS

According to the “Braak hypothesis”, PD originates when a pathogen or misfolded protein enters through the nose or digestive system and spreads step-by-step into the brain [5-6]. Clumping of misfolded α-synuclein protein into Lewy bodies occurs in the enteric nervous system of the gut and in the olfactory bulb [5-6]. Through vagus nerve (VN), the pathology reaches to the lower brain stem en route to the midbrain and cortex. Prion-like behavior of the misfolded proteins affect nearby neurons and PD pathogenesis spreads to the sensory and neocortex areas that manifest cognitive decline and other PD hallmarks [5-6]. Braak hypothesis has recently been intensified through the “gut-brain-axis” concept that facilitates bidirectional communicative networking through metabolic, endocrine, immune and neurological processes [5-6]. The “gut-brain-axis” encompass the gut microbiota with autonomic nervous system (ANS), enteric nervous system (ENS), central nervous system (CNS) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis [5-6]. ANS and vagus nerve directly while the ENS indirectly mediate the gut-brain communication [5-6]. This communication is substantiated by the gut microbiota and thus the gut has been christened as the “second brain” [7]. Gut is a reservoir of different microbes that play pivotal role in maintaining “healthy brain” and “healthy second brain” [7]. Gut microbiota confer significant impact on accumulation, distribution and dissipation of various neurobiochemicals [3]. Thus, present and absence of different gut microbiome acts as a gold standard for prognosing and assessing different neurological disorders [7]. Compared with those of the healthy individuals, PD manifestations have been corelated with increased level of Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium, Enterococcus and Lactobacillus [8]. The opposite occurrence has been aligned with Blautia, Coprococcus and Prevotellaceae [8]. Mechanism of action of the gut microbiome on healthy and neurodegenerative diseased brain such as of PD involve neurotransmitters, hormones and metabolites [8]. Gut microbiota produce several neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine and serotonin as well as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) whose effect on the host (human) would aid in maintaining normal levels of the neurotransmitters [9]. Metabolites derived from the fermentation mediated by the gut microbiome act as chemical messenger in the bi-directional signaling cascades between the brain and the gut [9]. These chemical messenger include short chain fatty acids (SCFA) such as acetate, propionate and butyrate [9]. SCFAs intensify gut barriers, provide nutritive support to the colon cells, prevent leakage of toxins to the blood stream, anti-inflammatory support to both the gut and the brain and influence neurobiochemical activities as the SCFAs can cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) [10]. On the other hand, hippuric acid and trimethylamine-N-oxide, two metabolites of gut microbiota, confer PD pathogenesis [10]. However, some schools of thought do not fully agree with “Braak hypothesis” and opine for much complex pathogenic routes rather than the single straight forward one proposed by the “Braak hypothesis” [11].

3. MUSHROOMS AS PREBIOTICS FOR PARKINSON’S DISEASE TREATMENT

 According to the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP), a “prebiotic” is “a substrate that is selectively utilised by host microorganisms conferring a health benefit”[12]. They are non-digestible foods that promote the growth of beneficial microorganisms especially in the gut [12]. Mushrooms fulfill the criteria of prebiotics fully [13-15]. Mushrooms possess complex carbohydrates including beta-D-glucans, hemicellulose and chitin that are indigestible in the stomach and promote growth of beneficiary microbes like Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus in the large intestine [13-15]. Fermentation of mushroom-derived complex carbohydrates produce SCFAs that maintain healthy gut lining along with anti-inflammatory defense [13-15]. Prebiotic roles of the mushrooms, once combined with those of the probiotics (live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host-ISAPP), turns into heightened PD modulating agents [16-18]. This occurs due to enhanced production of postbiotics (inanimate microorganisms and/or their components that confers a health benefit on the host-ISAPP) through combined support of the pre- and post-biotics that ultimately become beneficiary to the host (human). In this aspect, mushrooms as prebiotics, promote growth of probiotic microorganisms (bacteria) and release of postbiotics (neurotransmitters, vitamins, amino acids, metabolites) in the gut of human (host) and thus aid in maintaining “healthy brain” and “healthy second brain (the gut)” that ultimately provide PD and other neurodegenerative amelioration [12]. Mushrooms (Agaricus blazei, Flammulina velutipes, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa,  Hericium erinaceus, Lentinula edodes, Lingnosus rhinocersu, Pleurotus ostreatus) improve both motor (tremors, stiffness) and non-motor (depression, anxiety, cognitive decline) symptoms associated with PD [16-18]. Psychedelic mushrooms (Psilocybe cubenssis) have been found having anti-depression and anxiety-relieving effects [19-20]. In addition, anti-oxidative (through various phenolics), anti-inflammatory (through triterpenoids) and neurite outgrowth promoting potentiality of mushrooms make them ideal as PD therapeutic agents [21]. Self medication of reishi mushroom (Ganoderm lucidum) provided immense improvement in PD symptoms [22]. In silico, cell lines and animal model studies also provide support to beneficiary effect of mushrooms on PD and other neurodegenerative diseases [23-26]. Constipation, a prominent hallmark of “brain-gut” nexus relating PD, had been reported to be relieved through edible and medicinal mushroom (Auricularia auricula, Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus citrinopileatus) intake [27-30]. Constipation relieving mechanism had been reported as the mushroom-derived dietary fibers that rather provide fermentation promoting microenvironment in the gut to the beneficiary gut microbiome [27-30]. In these ways, mushrooms, through their prebiotics efficiency, support the growth of the probiotics microorganisms that ultimately aid in PD pathogenesis amelioration [31-32].

4. Conclusion

Mushrooms, as prebiotics, confer support to growth of probiotic microorganisms in the gut. Microbes aid in PD amelioration of the human hosts through secretion of beneficiary metabolites to the host gut that later on acts on the brain. Through maintenance of the “healthy gut-brain” relationship, mushrooms provide PD amendment effects.

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Citation: Rahman, M. A., Mia, M. I., Badhon, M. R. I., Rahman, F., & Islam, M. T. (2026). Gut-Brain Axis Modulatory Effects of Mushrooms in Parkinson’s Disease. J. Psychol. Neurosci. Res. Learn.